The History of Islam: ʿUthmān (Third Rāshidūn Caliph)
The History of Islam: The Umayyad (First Dynasty)
___________________________________________________________________________

The Rāshidūn Caliphate (“deputy of God” or “successor of his Prophet”), from 632–661 CE, immediately succeeded Muhammad (570–632), the founder of Islam, first through Muḥammad’s father-in-law Abū Bakr (632–634), followed by ʿUmar (l. c586–644; r. 634–644), ʿUthmān (r. 644–656), and finally ‘Alī (r. 656–661). These four caliphs (Khalīfa) are called the Rāshidūn, meaning the “rightly guided”.

Ali was the fourth caliph and a cousin of Muhammad. He was the first male convert to Islam and a prominent warrior during the Medinan period of Muhammad’s career, and his role as caliph followed the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman. 

Companion of Muhammad and Reputation

Ali is revered as one of the major companions (al-ṣaḥābah) of Muammad’s and a respected member of the ruling Quraysh tribe of Mecca. From 610 to 622, he assisted impoverished Muslims by distributing what he had among them.

Ali was known for his strength and bravery, as he was involved in various armed defenses of the Muslim community. He participated in skirmishes against the Quraysh opposing Muhammad and the Muslim community in Medina. He occupied the role of commander, such as during the Battle of Fadak in 628.

As Muhammad’s companion, Ali wrote down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah agreement between the Prophet and the Quraysh in 628. The agreement was for a ten-year armistice between Muḥammad and the Quraysh, which would allow Muslims to make the pilgrimage to Mecca in exchange for various concessions.

However, the treaty only lasted for ten months following the pilgrimage, as the Quraysh were perceived to have violated it. Muhammad would later conquer Mecca in 630 and order Ali to destroy the idols in the Kaaba, an important place of pilgrimage visited by the polytheists in the pre-Islamic era from throughout Arabia as well as a source of economic wealth for the Quraysh tribe.

Many of Ali’s speeches and letters are preserved in the eleventh-century collection Nahj al-balagha (The Peak of Eloquence). These are believed by Muslims to reflect his skillful use of Arabic rhetoric, deep piety, and the depth of his wisdom. 

Opposition

Ali’s opponents accused him of failing to bring rebel assassins to justice, and some even accused him of complicity in their efforts. 

In a conflict between Ali and Aisha (614–678), a widow of Muhammad, the latter was defeated in the Battle of the Camel (Iraq) in 656, the first major civil war in Islamic history. In a further series of skirmishes around a ruined Byzantine village called Siffin (Syria), Ali and Muawiya (l. 605–680; r. 661–680), the second cousin of Uthman, waged war.

A major battle between the two began on July 26, 657, and continued for three days and nights, after which it ceased and arbitration commenced. The attempt at arbitration failed to settle the major issues, such as punishing those who murdered Uthman and disputes over leadership. 

The Fall of Ali

This moment proved a turning point for the worse. A group of former supporters, who came to be labeled Kharijite (“those who withdraw [from the community]”), defected, although Ali defeated them in the Battle of Nahrawan (658).

However, in 661, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa (Iraq), a Kharijite by the name of Ibn Muljam (d. 661) attacked him, causing an injury to which he would succumb. Ibn Muljam was executed by Ali’s son, Hasan ibn Ali (625–670), just three days later.