The History of Islam: ‘Umar (Second Rāshidūn Caliph)
The History of Islam: Ali (Fourth and Final Rāshidūn Caliph)
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The Rāshidūn Caliphate (“deputy of God” or “successor of his Prophet”), from 632–661 CE, immediately succeeded Muḥammad (570–632), the founder of Islam, first through Muḥammad’s father-in-law Abū Bakr (632–634), followed by ʿUmar (l. c586–644; r. 634–644), ʿUthmān (r. 644–656), and finally ‘Alī (r. 656–661). These four caliphs (Khalīfa) are called the Rāshidūn, meaning the “rightly guided”.

ʿUthmān, born in Makkah (Mecca), was a merchant who converted to Islam and was later selected as the successor of ‘Umar. ʿUthmān married Muḥammad’s daughters, Ruqayya (601–624) and (after her death) Umm Kulthūm (603–630). Many believed he modeled his administrative changes on Byzantine and Sasanian models, although documentary evidence for this is poor.

Under ʿUthmān, Muslim forces overran Armenia while naval effectiveness and power progressed. He approved the renewal of conquests that threatened the Byzantine positions in the entire Mediterranean, which became apparent in two critical maritime victories in the first invasion of Cyprus (648) and the Battle of the Masts (655).

Uthmān produced the official edition of the Qurʾān to preserve uniformity in religion and across the empire. The “Qurʾān-reciters” (Qurrāʾ) enjoyed significant religious prestige and authority across the empire’s provinces for being the expositors of Islam’s sacred text and for their influence over the new converts. However, ʿUthmān’s efforts produced animosity towards him because producing an official edition of the Holy Book deprived these influential figures of control over divine revelation. Consequently, broad social, economic, and political discontent emerged.

ʿUthmān was also accused of corruption and later nepotism, as he increasingly relied on his ʿUmayyah family. Strong opposition emerged through ʿĀʾisha (Muḥammad’s favorite wife), and the fourth Rāshidūn caliph ‘Alī, both accusing him of not following the precepts set in the Qurʾān and by Muḥammad.

Civil animosity disillusioned many Muslims, which led to open rebellion as rebel forces from across Egypt, Kūfā, and Basra advanced on Madīna, declared ʿUthmān unfit to rule, and murdered him.

ʿUthmān’s turbulent rule and bloody death demonstrate that political and religious unity was at an end, followed by a period of schisms and civil wars. ʿUthmān’s death also raised the complex issue of just murder and unjust killing, which also produced further division amongst the Muslim community.

References

Esposito, John L. 2009. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press

Kerr, Anne., and Wright, Edmund. 2015. A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press.