In the previous entry, we observed several hypotheses pertaining to the number of migrating Hebrews during the exodus offered by several leading biblical scholars. In this follow-up, I stress how a literalistic interpretation of the biblical figures of a two million or so migrating Hebrew population produces a host of intra-biblical and logistical issues (Clark 1955, 86; Grieve 1960, 214).

Part 1: The Story
Part 10: The Number of the Migrating Hebrews [P1]
Part 12: Forthcoming

To begin, one may consider the logistical criticisms. Logistics emphasizes the movements of objects over distances, which, in this case, is a migrating population of Hebrews who had fled Egypt into the wilderness in pursuit of the Promised Land of Canaan.

Logistically, the enormous mass that two million migrants would produce is improbable. It has been speculated that such a population would engender “a column twenty-two miles long, marching fifty abreast with one yard between each rank” (Snaith quoted by Hart 2018, 19). If the Hebrews marched ten abreast and with their animals (donkeys, flocks of sheep and goats, herds of cattle), a column of 150 miles (241 kilometers) is conceivable (Hart 2018, 89). That would be a column roughly twelve times the length of the Great Wall of China (21 kilometers or 13 miles).

The enormity of this column makes some biblical passages dubious. In the Book of Exodus, Moses is described as assembling tribes at Rameses near Goshen and then moving to their first campsite, Succoth, roughly 25 miles southeast. Evidently, this happened in a hurry: “And the Egyptians were urgent upon the people, that they might send them out of the land in haste… And the people took their dough before it was leavened…” (12:33–34). Yet, the odd scenario is that if a two million-strong migrating population would produce a column 150 miles long, the front of the column would arrive in Succoth while the majority of the Hebrews would still be stuck back in Rameses. It would hardly then make sense to say they were in a hurry.

In addition, as J. W. Colenso (1863) recognized, the Hebrews would have had two million sheep and oxen for their two million population. This would lead to some serious logistical and territorial issues with constantly moving and feeding these sheep and cattle (Rogerson 1984, 222). Assuming five sheep required one acre, an enormous area of 25 square miles (40 square kilometers) of grazing would have been needed for the sheep alone.

Various biblical details indicate a significantly smaller wandering Hebrew population than the literalistic interpretation allows. To cite a few examples, we read that Moses and Aaron addressed all the Hebrews at one time (Ex. 16:6; 17:25). Moses instructed Aaron to say “to the entire Israelite community, ‘Come before the Lord, for he has heard your grumbling’… Aaron “was speaking to the whole Israelite community” (Ex. 16:9–10, emphasis added in italics). All the people are described as responding collectively together (Ex. 17:7, 17), and Moses was able to tell Yahweh what all the people had said (Ex. 17:9). In an age without any form of advanced communicative technologies, these are near impossible tasks if there were two million Hebrews. Alternatively, they are probably possible if the population was smaller, perhaps numbering in the hundreds or few thousands.

To continue citing descriptions suggesting a small Hebrew population. Moses went “out in front of the people” and struck a rock with his staff, after which water poured out “for the people to drink” (Ex. 17:5). The people are described collectively, and is one to believe that from one rock, two million could line up to drink water? What about the two million or so cattle? During the wilderness period, Moses is described as being the lone judge for the people from morning until evening (Ex. 17:13). Although Moses would soon delegate these responsibilities to others below him, is one to suppose that a single individual could function as a judge for two million people at any point?

Yahweh commanded Moses to consecrate the people in just two days, having them wash their clothes and be ready by the third day (Ex. 17:10-11). This is surely an impossible task given the unlikeliness of washing the clothes of over two million people in two days, let alone in an age without contemporary washing technologies (Ex. 17:14-15).

One reads that there were too few Hebrews to occupy the Promised Land (Ex. 23:30) and that they were “the fewest of all peoples” (Deut. 7:7). This is dubious. Since the population of ancient Egypt around this time was an estimated 2.5–3 million (Dorman and Baines 2025), this makes little sense, since over two million Hebrews is not too far off that figure. Not only is a two million population not by ancient standards the fewest of all peoples, but such an enormous number would have been sufficient to fill the small land of Canaan, easily populating the towns, villages, and settlements throughout the hills and regions of the Promised Land.

In addition, if there was an available fighting force of 600,000 Hebrews, then details in which the Hebrews struggled to overcome the enemy in warfare make little sense. For example, the Amalekites, a nomadic tribe, were in a battle against the Hebrews that would last a day (Ex. 17:8–13). With a possible force of 600,000, almost certainly the largest the ancient world had seen, let alone small tribes in the hills of Canaan, the Amalekites would have been defeated quickly. Instead, the Book of Exodus describes the battle ebbing and flowing. When Moses held up his hand, the Hebrews would begin prevailing on the turf, although the tide would turn against them when he let his hand down (17:11). Finally, Aaron and Hur held up Moses’ arms, which led to a Hebrew victory. This back and forth is hardly what one would expect from a powerful fighting force against a small hill tribe.

Given these insights, that the Hebrew migrating population numbered over two million is undermined intra-biblically and logistically. Granting this, there have been speculative attempts to salvage the two million figure, such as H. L. Strack’s proposal that two million Hebrews did indeed flee Egypt but at different times and in smaller groups (1894, 213). However, no biblical, textual, or physical evidence supports Strack’s hypothesis. Such a conjecture serves to add to the recognition that such an enormous migrating group is improbable on various grounds.

Inventions Serving a Theological Purpose

According to biblical scholar E. W. Davies, these large biblical figures are fictitious and invented (1995, 465).

He stresses that these enormous numbers cohere with other ancient Near Eastern evidence, such as Sumerian king-lists outlining the reigns of the kings from antiquity that were greatly exaggerated, intended to underscore the importance of their rule. In military terms, numbers were also frequently exaggerated for rhetorical effect (e.g., Sennacherib’s inscription and reports about Shalmaneser I; for biblical examples, the Book of Judges describes 400,000 Hebrews who march against Benjamin (20:1–2) and King Saul being accompanied by 200,000 foot soldiers as he went to attack the Amalekites (1 Samuel 15:4); also see 2 Chronicles 13:3, 14:8, 17:14).

Critics would be no doubt quick to pounce, alleging that Davies’ insight is grounds for rejecting value in the biblical sources. As R. E. D. Clark says, numerical “Difficulties… have long been urged as evidence of the unreliability of the Bible” (Clark 1955, 83). Yet this criticism is not necessarily warranted.

The inflated and exaggerated numbers in the Old Testament may well serve a theological purpose. According to Davies, the numbers demonstrate the miraculous power of Yahweh, who was powerful in sustaining his Chosen People during their wilderness period and wanderings.

The large numbers of enemies of the Hebrews were also exaggerated in order to enhance the magnitude of their victory over them while also asserting that the victory was achieved by Yahweh and not by human agents (see Josh. 23:10; Judg. 1:4, 3:29). On the other hand, the Hebrew numbers are exaggerated, intending to emphasize the power of Yahweh’s people as they crushed all opposition and enemies (see Josh. 8:3; 1 Sam. 15:4).

Davies further believes that the biblical authors wanted to emphasize that the promise of abundant progeny made by Yahweh to the patriarchs (Gen. 12:1-3) was already in the process of being fulfilled during the wandering period of the Hebrews (1995, 468). The numbers are proof that Yahweh’s promise was already beginning to be fulfilled even before the Hebrews had reached the Promised Land of Canaan: “The essence of that message was that a nation, which seemed small and insignificant at the beginning of its existence, could increase out of all proportion as a result of Yahweh’s blessing and in fulfilment of his promise to the patriarchs” (Davies 1995, 469).

Part 12: Forthcoming

References

Clark, R. E. D. 1955. “The Large Numbers of the Old Testament—Especially in Connexion with the Exodus.” Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute 87:82-92.

Colenso, John W. 1863. The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined. London, England, United Kingdom: London, Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green.

Dorman, Peter F., and Baines, John R. 2025. “Ancient Egypt.” Britannica. Available.

Hart, Roy H. 2018. Reading the Bible in the 21st Century. Altona, Manitoba, Canada: FriesenPress.

Rogerson, W. 1984. Old Testament Criticism in the Nineteenth Century, England and Germany. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States: Fortress Press.

Strack, Hermann L. 1894. Die Bücher Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus und Numeri. München, Germany: Beck.